Long before sectarian lines hardened across the Indian Subcontinent, a mystic named Guru Nanak emerged from the village of Talwandi (now Nankana Sahib, Pakistan) with a message that transcended religious boundaries.

Born on 15 April 1469 into a Hindu family, Guru Nanak was deeply influenced not only by Bhakti [devotional worship] traditions, but also by the Islamic monotheism that surrounded him. His spiritual vision gave birth to Sikhism — not as a break from Hinduism or Islam, but as a bridge that hoped to connect them.

Guru Nanak’s teachings — delivered through poetry, music and profound silence — echoed equally in temples, mosques and khanqahs [Sufi lodges]. At the heart of his message is the concept of Ik Onkar (There is but one God), closely resonating with the Islamic principle of Tauhid (oneness of God).

Guru Nanak’s respect for Islamic figures was neither rhetorical nor superficial. There are verses extolling the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), with his reverence extending beyond words. Tradition holds that Guru Nanak undertook pilgrimages to Makkah, Madina, Baghdad and Najaf, engaging with Muslim scholars and Sufi mystics. The Chola Sahib, a robe still preserved by his family, bears embroidered Quranic verses and names of Allah, reflecting his deep engagement with Islamic spirituality.

Born from Sufi and Bhakti traditions, Sikhism was India’s great interfaith experiment… until persecution and betrayals turned it into a warrior tradition

This interfaith spirit was further embodied when Guru Arjan Dev, the fifth Sikh Guru, invited Sufi saint Hazrat Mian Mir to lay the foundation of the Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple) in 1588 — a powerful symbol of communal harmony.

However, this harmony did not survive the shifting political landscape of the Mughal Empire.

From Akbar’s Tolerance to Mughal Orthodoxy

Under Mughal Emperor Akbar (reigned 1556–1605), a brief window of religious openness flourished. Akbar encouraged interfaith dialogue, invited scholars of diverse backgrounds to his court, and even included Sikh representatives. His establishment of the Ibadat Khana [house of worship] at Fatehpur Sikri brought together thinkers from Hindu, Jain, Zoroastrian, Christian and Muslim traditions. Akbar’s policy of Sulh-i-Kul [universal peace] reflected a syncretic spirit rarely seen among contemporary rulers.

However, this pluralistic ethos began to unravel under his successors, particularly Jahangir and Aurangzeb, who were influenced by a rising tide of orthodox Sunni revivalism. A key intellectual figure behind this shift was Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (1564–1624), also known as Mujaddid Alf-i-Thani — the “Reformer of the Second Millennium” in Islamic tradition. Sirhindi’s influence marked a major turning point in the ideological landscape of the Mughal Empire.

Sirhindi not only denounced the syncretic and inclusive religious experiments of Akbar’s court, but also challenged the metaphysical foundations of dominant Sufi thought. He took aim at the philosophy of Wahdat-ul-Wujood [unity of being], famously articulated by Andalusian Sufi Ibn al-Arabi (1165–1240), which posits that all existence is a manifestation of God’s being. In its more liberal interpretations, this view had allowed space for interreligious respect and mystical inclusivity.

In response, Sirhindi proposed Wahdat-ul-Shuhood [unity of witnessing] — a stricter formulation which emphasised the transcendence of God and denied that created beings shared in Divine essence. While still rooted in Sufi tradition, this new doctrine reasserted theological boundaries, placing Islam in firm doctrinal opposition to other faiths and to the syncretic spirituality promoted during Akbar’s reign.

Sirhindi claimed that he had “given a new life to the deen [religion]”, casting himself as the guardian of Islam against the dilution of its core principles. His letters, known as the Maktubat, circulated widely among the Mughal elite and influenced state policy, encouraging a return to Shariah-based governance and a suppression of heterodox practices. This orthodox turn significantly shaped the attitudes of Mughal rulers, laying the groundwork for the persecution of non-Sunni and non-Muslim communities, including Sikhs.

The First Crack

In 1606, Guru Arjan Dev, who had compiled the Adi Granth (the precursor to the Guru Granth Sahib, Sikhism’s holy book) incorporating hymns from Hindu, Sikh and Muslim mystics such as Baba Farid, was arrested under Mughal Emperor Jahangir’s orders.

Viewed with suspicion for his inclusive approach and growing influence, he was subjected to horrific torture at Lahore Fort: made to sit on a burning plate while hot sand was poured over him. According to Sikh traditions, Guru Arjan Dev remained immersed in meditation despite the agony. Allowed to bathe in the Ravi River, he disappeared into its waters — thus becoming the first Sikh martyr.

This event marked a turning point. His son, Guru Hargobind, responded by adopting military symbols, donning two swords representing miri [temporal authority] and piri [spiritual authority], initiating Sikhism’s martial transformation.

Under Aurangzeb, the rift between Sikhs and the Mughal state widened irreparably. In 1675, Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Guru, was approached by Kashmiri Pandits seeking jizya [religious tax] concessions, who asked him to intercede on their behalf with the emperor, according to Sikh traditions.

At the Mughal court in Delhi, Guru Tegh Bahadur was mocked and asked to perform a miracle to prove his spiritual authority or convert to Islam. When he refused, he was executed by beheading in Delhi.

The Birth of the Khalsa

The oppression reached its peak during the time of Guru Gobind Singh (1666–1708). In 1699, he institutionalised the Khalsa, a brotherhood of warrior-saints devoted to defending righteousness and justice. This transformation was a direct response to Mughal aggression.

Aurangzeb’s betrayal of promises led to a tragic siege at Anandpur Sahib. After agreeing to grant safe passage, the Mughals attacked Guru Gobind Singh’s entourage. His mother and two young sons were captured and killed, and the Guru himself was forced into battles and exile.

In a letter known as the Zafarnama, Guru Gobind Singh condemned Aurangzeb’s duplicity in Persian verse. A translation by Indian diplomat and author Navtej Sarna reads:

“I have no faith in your oath, even if sworn by God—
For He is One, and your words are hollow.
I place no trust in your courts or ministers—
All are liars, and your promises false.”

The execution of his father, the betrayal of sacred promises, and the murder of his family pushed Guru Gobind Singh to shift Sikhism firmly into a martial path of self-defence and resistance.

A Legacy of Coexistence and Conflict

The arc from Guru Nanak’s inclusive message to Guru Gobind Singh’s martial reformation reflects not a departure from his founding ideals, but a response to historical injustice and persecution. From reverence for Islamic monotheism to resistance against religious coercion, Sikhism’s journey through the Mughal period is a testament to both spiritual dialogue and the cost of broken promises.

Even in confrontation, Guru Nanak’s original vision — of a world where truth, humility and justice transcend religious boundaries — remains at the heart of Sikh philosophy. Yet, in a complex twist of history, the one who was born a Hindu and led both Hindus and others toward the worship of one God — Tauheed, as understood in Islam — ultimately saw his legacy diverted by later generations.

What seemingly began as a call to dissolve religious identities in Divine oneness gradually hardened into a separate identity. In seeking to defend the faith, many strayed from the universal spirit that Baba Nanak had so boldly embodied, inadvertently obscuring the very essence he once awakened.

The writer is an activist and founder of the Clifton Urban Forest, Karachi. X: @masoodlohar

Published in Dawn, EOS, May 18th, 2025