Nanditha Krishna, with several publications to her credit, is a professor at MadrasUniversity, and has received a number of prestigious national and international awards. In this volume she begins with a perceptive overview of the various types of demonic beings and concepts existing in Hindu literature. She follows this up with an engaging and informative account of these beings, their origins and place in mythology, and in daily life. Finally she presents a dictionary of demonology which covers a good 100 pages. At the end of each chapter is an impressive bibliography, including names like that of the famous English poet William Blake, and titles such as J. G. Fraser's The Golden Bough, along with references to many Indian scholars. So we may say that she has searched both far and wide to reach her conclusions.
Where do demons come from? Concerning the commonality of these beings, she writes that many were even of human or originally of heavenly nature. 'Those who met unnatural or violent deaths, those who were terrifying in their lifetime, and those who had inadequate death rites and so are frustrated become demons... They may be male or female, native or outsider... and of any caste, religion or lineage. They have one thing in common; after their deaths, they are figures of malice, figures to be feared and to be propitiated.'
Regarding the fight between good and evil, hero and demon, Nanditha mentions outstanding personalities in recent and contemporary war history, pointing out, however, that even here where multitudes are involved, the hero and the villain will be seen as single individuals, and adding that this is rooted in our primordial memory of hand-to-hand battle, in contests where one must win and one must lose. Symbolically, however, it is the hero's renunciation of the world, and his lone, isolated battle to achieve rebirth that lets him emerge finally as one with control over the negative aspects of both material and spiritual power. Therefore, while dealing with Buddhist demons somewhat later, she reminds us of the Buddha's struggle with Mara and his three daughters, Desire, Unrest and Pleasure.
Demons, she points out, are of a higher order than human beings, not to be equated with ghosts, and apart from those present in the Vedas, Epics and Puranas, in India 'every state, caste, community and tribe (has) its own myths and legends' to account for this vast range of beings, and much demonology depends upon orally transmitted tales.
Among the fallen gods, Asura comes in for an exhaustive study, Nanditha informing us that these beings with the title of Asura receive almost as much attention in the Rig Veda as Deva is given, and their fall from grace is followed by the author through the various Vedas. Interestingly, we learn that human beings, like gods, are called Asuras, the writer A. A. MacDonnel suggesting that it was the use of maya or occult power that actually discredited the Asuras, lowering them from the level of gods to that of humans. Parallels are drawn with the fall of the Greek god Daimon and of course with the career of Satan as portrayed in both the Old Testament and the New Testament of Christianity, while the status positions of the Deva and the Asura in Buddhist cosmology are briefly set out as well.
Regarding the fight between good and evil, hero and demon, Nanditha points out that the hero and the villain will be seen as single individuals, one must win and one lose. Symbolically, it is the hero's renunciation of the world, and his lone, isolated battle to achieve rebirth that lets him emerge finally as one with control over the negative aspects of both material and spiritual power.
Demonised and non-demonised enemies are discussed at length, and the Nagas, for example, are described as 'semi-divine mythical beings, with human heads and snake bodies. Yet (there was) also a historical people of the same name, probably snake-worshipping Shakas (Scythi-ans) of the trans-Himalayan region.' Modern Taxila (ancient Takshasila) is named either after the Naga king Takshaka or else after Taksha, son of Bharata and nephew of Rama; we are told, Taxila being but one example of the places named after them.
The author also regales us with quite a long and impressive list of demonic lands, along with the types of offenders likely to be banished to them. To mention just a few of those named by the Agni Purana, there is Kakola, for those who eat only sweets. (Well, I have a sweet tooth. What about you?) And there is Mahapata for liars, Maharaurava for arsonists, Suchimukha for misers, and so on. These hells differ to some degree according to the individual Purana.
The evil eye is a bogey that haunts nearly all Indians, whether Hindu, Muslim or Christian, and its influence finds its way into many cultures of the world. Common antidotes or protectives mentioned by the author include the use of kajal, metals, red chillies and salt, some of these being accompanied by incantations. But fire is believed to be the most effective, the bewitched object being thrown into this, though kirtimukha - gorgon heads - placed above doorways are also often used as protection.
In the short chapter on the demons of Jainism and Buddhism, Nanditha informs us that these two beliefs are offshoots of the Vedic religion, and that both 'have a high content of Brahmanical deities', thus including demons in their mythologies.
However, Buddhist demons 'are different from Brahmanical demons in that most are local spirits, not necessarily Buddhist or Brahmanical.' Now and then evil spirits may have a friendly side, but Buddhist rituals include incantations to banish those which are frankly inimical.
As to the friendly ones, the chief demons of Mahayana or Vajrayana Buddhism actually stand watch over monasteries and stupas, to keep away the minor ones. And more interesting still is the presence of the four guardian demons, seen on the four cardinal points of temples and monasteries in Ladakh, for example, as well as in Tibet and Mongolia. They are Vaishravana, king of the north, Virudhaka, king of the south, Dhritarashtra, king of the east and Virupaksha, king of the west.
In preparing this interesting work, with its breadth of vision, Nanditha Krishna has certainly left no stone unturned, and her inclusion of simple sketches, along with 12 colourful paintings accompanied by clear captions and notes, adds to the reader's understanding.
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