The invasion of Punjab by Alexander the Greek lasted for a very short period. After his army was depleted -- historians believe defeated -- in the battle against Porus or the Puru, his small army moved towards the Beas. Opposite was a combined army of six ‘Purus’ - a massive 600,000 plus army – almost 18 times larger with half of them aggressive cavalry. India has never seen a larger army.

On seeing them, Alexander’s men immediately revolted. The historian R.G. Grant (2011) states: “every Greek soldier believed that they would be eliminated within two hours”. They wanted to return home. So avoiding Lahore, they headed towards Kolachi (Karachi). On the way, Alexander suffered a fatal arrow wound at Multan. But short-lived that the invasion was, he left behind a Hellenistic art form, which had Greek and Buddhist features. This was the gift to our ancient culture of the Indo-Greek rulers that followed him, especially to Lahore. All this can be seen in the amazing Lahore Museum collection.

It was these Indo-Greek rulers, of whom very little – if nothing - is mentioned in our history books but these rulers laid the foundation of Buddhism in Lahore that continued for approximately 700 years. Most people interested in Lahore’s history, especially scholars, are unaware that Punjab and Lahore had Indo-Greek rulers for over 300 years. The first of these great Indo-Greek rulers was Menander the First (165– 130 BC) who is considered the greatest of the Indo-Greek kings. He was a fervent admirer and patron of Buddhism and the subject of an important Buddhist work, titled ‘Milinda-Panha’ - The Questions of Milinda. There is a dispute about where he was born. One set of scholars claims he was born in the Caucasus but the Greek historian Strabo claims he was born in Sagala (Sialkot).

Most Greek historians claim that Menander the Saviour conquered more tribes than Alexander. His kingdom in the Indian subcontinent consisted of an area extending from the Kabul River valley in the west to the Ravi River in the east and from the Swat River valley in the north to Kandahar in Afghanistan in the south. Ancient Indian writers claim that his armies went as far as Bihar, though no proof of this exists.

Menander the First was the first Indo-Greek king who was converted to Buddhism by a holy man named Nagasena after a prolonged and intelligent discussion, which has been recorded in the Milinda-Panha. This was the beginning of Buddhism in Lahore and Punjab, which was brutally ended by the Alchon Hun ruler Toramana following the advice of their Brahmin court officials. So the Huns butchered each and every Buddhist in Lahore in the year 515 AD.

The first influence of Buddhism on the Greeks was when Alexander in 324 BC met a Buddhist monk and was much impressed by what he advised. Since that day, Buddhism spread among the Greek soldiers. If one were to visit the Lahore Museum and see the Greek era coins, one can see the Buddhist symbols engraved on some Menander-era coins.

The only inscription referring to Menander the Saviour has been found in Bajaur between the Swat and Kunar rivers, but large numbers of Menander’s coins have been unearthed, mostly of silver and copper, attesting to both the duration of his reign and the flourishing commerce of his realm. In the 1959, Lahore archaeological dig in the Lahore Fort opposite the Dewan-e-Aam, at 30 feet, Menander era coins were found. According to Buddhist tradition, he handed over his kingdom to his son and retired from the world.

The Indo-Greek kingdom emerged after the breakup of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, with rulers like Demetrius the First who expanded into the Indian subcontinent. The first ruler of Lahore and Punjab was Menander the First (165-130 BC), followed by Apollodotus I, Eucratides, Hippostratos, Dionysius, Zoilus the Second, and finally Strato the Second. The nearest meaning in Latin but of ‘Old Punjabi’ origin of Strato is ‘stratocracy’ or military rule.

The Indo-Greek kingdom in Punjab declined due to invasions by the Sakas and other groups. While their political control ended, Greek culture and influence persisted in the region for some time, even under the rule of the Kushans.

Menander is notable for being the only Indo-Greek king mentioned in classical Indian literature, particularly in the Buddhist text, which recounts a philosophical dialogue between him and the sage Nagasena. His military campaigns extended into India, as documented by historians like Strabo and referenced in Indian sources such as Patanjali’s work, though he ultimately did not manage to consolidate his conquests.

Menander’s reign marked the peak of Greco-Bactrian influence, yet after his death, which various accounts suggest was either due to natural causes or during a military campaign, his successors faced instability. His coins, featuring bilingual inscriptions in Greek and Kharosthi, often depicted the goddess Pallas and carried titles such as ‘Saviour’ and ‘Just’. Despite the decline of his dynasty in the following century, Menander’s legacy continues through his representation in Buddhist literature and the cultural exchanges he fostered between Greek and Indian societies.

For the purposes of this column, we will mention two battles in which his initial brutality comes forth. They were the Battle of Sagala and the Battle of the Ravi. These battles are mentioned in Strabo’s description (“Geography” of Strabo translated by Horace Leonard Jones. 8 vols. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982-1989). As Sagala was Menander’s birthplace, the sudden appearance of hill tribes from Kashmir who took over this critical ‘capital’ startled him. The battle went, briefly, as follows: “Menander ordered that Sagala be completely surrounded. He then starved the invaders and entered the town and ordered that each and every invader be slaughtered and their heads put on poles. For one season, those heads remained there as a lesson to any others thinking of challenging him”.

The Battle of the Ravi has been described in the following manner: “Invaders from the East moved in to capture the fort of Luv on the Ravi (Iravati). As their fighters were camped on both sides of the river, it was a problem eliminating them. Our men crossed the river at two points and surrounded these men. On our side, an army prevented them from crossing across the river. Over two days each and every invader was slaughtered. The mud fort we found empty.”

Such were the battles that were fought over 2,200 years ago by the Indo-Greek rulers of Punjab and Lahore. The brutality of Menander is understandable. But the fact that he was a thinker first, it makes sense that after securing his kingdom he mellowed and accepted Buddhism. This peace-loving Buddhism is “a faith as well as a philosophy” that preaches ‘Nirvana’… the ultimate goal is ‘Enlightenment” … a process of ‘suffering’ and ‘rebirth’ … a nontheistic process that lives in all of us.

If you walk through the ancient old city, you will see people quietly sitting for hours on ‘tharras’ – platforms – thinking and discussing issues. My way of thinking tells me that this – probably - is a continuation of an ancient way of living life. Only now it is peppered with an external force that challenges internal considerations.

Published in Dawn, June 22nd, 2025