The inverted commas, dashes, parentheses and capitalisation happen to be the last few items on our list of punctuation marks.

(1) The inverted commas or quotation marks have four basic functions
They are used to enclose the exact words of a speaker. Examples
(a) “I would rather die,” she said, “than leave my country.”
(b) Mark Anthony spoke, “Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.”
In the above examples it is important to note the positioning of the full-stops after the two words country and ears, and of the comma after the word die that they are enclosed by the closing inverted commas. The same would be the case with a speech ending with a question mark or a mark of exclamation.

(2) The inverted commas are also used to highlight a quotation within a quotation. In such a case single inverted commas are used. Example
(a) “You might as well say,” added the March Hare, “that 'I like what I get' is the same thing as 'I get what I like.' ”
It is to be noted in the above example that the speech ending carries both, the single closing inverted comma of the inside quotation, and the double closing inverted commas of the speech itself, with the period positioned before the three inverted commas.

(3) Another important use of speech marks is to enclose titles of short works, such as stories, stage plays, movies, art works, radio and television programmes, when included in sentences. Examples
(a) The children sat before the television set and watched “Uncle Sargam” with obvious interest.
(b) “Life is Beautiful” is a remarkable movie.

 (4) You also enclose the words used when you define or explain the meaning of a word. Examples
(a) An Aardvark is “a burrowing African animal.”
(b) Hypothermia is “a medical condition in which the body temperature is much lower than normal.”

Dashes are our next target. They indicate variations in the tone, colour or meaning in a sentence, and thus help in creating a dramatic effect. Example

Najam asked Mohsin — the friend who sat next to him in the Biology class — to accompany him to his house.
Note that the explanatory matter within the dashes adds colour to the otherwise simple statement.
Words within dashes also add emphasis. Example

Sania said, “Really — really Sadaf — you are going with me tomorrow.”
Dashes are also used to add information. Example

His house and mine were — and still are — in the same neighbourhood.
Our next object is parentheses. According to Ceil Cleveland, the author of “Better Punctuation”, “Use parentheses around elements that are interrupting your sentence —elements that are not necessary but add to the clarity... in the sentence.” Example

He gained from the tiresome journey (it was all he wished) a true friend.
In actual fact double dashes and parentheses are interchangeable to some extent. Example
He wanted from his friends — both of them — a huge favour.
He wanted from his friends (both of them) a huge favour.

So now finally we have arrived at capitalisation. It is important to note that capitals are used in the following areas of writing.
(a) When you begin a sentence. Example Where are you going at such an odd hour?
(b) When you begin each line of a poem. Example
(c) He that is down need fear no fall,
 He that is low, no pride.
(d) When you begin a proper noun or an adjective formed from a proper noun. Examples Karachi, Malir, Turkish, Judaic.
(e) Capitals are also used to begin nouns and pronouns that refer to The Creator. Example The Lord, He is our God.
(f) The pronoun 'I' and the exclamatory expression 'O' are both written in capital letters.

We cannot end our discourse on punctuation without referring to some important tips that aim to clear some misconceptions and teach our young learners how best to cope with poorly punctuated written work.
First of all, you have to change your mindset that rules of punctuation do not require to be learned. Or that if you add punctuation marks to a written work it is of secondary importance, as compared to working on the word order, the phrasing and the sentence structure. Actually all that you write depends heavily on an appropriate use of punctuation marks for a clear flow of ideas that convey your meaning correctly. The following example would help you understand this process

(a) By nine fifteen new students had arrived
(no punctuation marks, meaning is ambiguous)
(b) By nine, fifteen new students had arrived.
(c) By nine-fifteen, new students had arrived.
(In examples b and c, punctuation marks leave the meaning in no doubt)

It would definitely be worthwhile to practise the correct use of punctuation marks by applying the rules, explained in these columns, in your future written assignments. For reinforcement consult the language books at home or in your school library.Turn this practice into a hobby and begin observing signboards on roadsides and shops. You will be surprised to discover that they often carry errors of punctuation and capitalisation. This should help you in developing a critical eye as also in avoiding such errors in your writings.