The Roman Empire gradually expanded through military conquests. When the victorious generals returned home after a conquest with war booty and slaves, a triumphal march was arranged and they were welcomed by the citizens with jubilation and pride.

The victories made the generals popular and more ambitious for power and wealth. In memory of their conquests the Roman emperors depicted war scenes through carvings on pillars which were erected in the Forum in order to display their achievements to the public. Hence, the emperors and generals used war as a tool to gain popularity among the masses.

The Roman Republic was the period of the ancient Roman civilisation beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom, traditionally dated to 509 BC, and ending in 27 BC with the establishment of the Roman Empire. During the Republic days there was a conflict among the ambitious generals who wanted to assume more power than their rivals. The first important conflict was made between Sulla (d.78 BC) and Marius (d.86 BC). Sulla protected the rights of the aristocracy while Marius sympathised with the common people. In the end Sulla was successful and crushed his opponents brutally, confiscating their properties. He retired a wealthy man and spent the rest of his life in prosperity.

Roman history shows that in the absence of disciplined rule, the state and society suffer

The second important clash was between Julius Caesar (d.44 BC) and Pompey (d.48 BC) in which the latter was defeated and killed while he took refuge in Egypt. Emboldened by his success and popularity in the army, Caesar became desirous of absolute power. Sensing his objectives, the Roman senators conspired against him and assassinated him to save the Republic from absolutism. However, the ensuing civil war spelled the end of the days of the Republic.

Caesar’s successor Augustus (d.14 AD) stabilised the empire. He instituted the Praetorian guards whose duty was to protect the emperor’s tent in the army camp. They were loyal and faithful to the emperor. Augustus reorganised the army and after conquering the neighbouring countries extended the empire. He may not have assumed the royal title but he enjoyed absolute power and maintained good relations with the senate. After his death, his successors were incapable of managing the affairs of the empire. Due to the prevailing political instability, the Praetorian guards became powerful and played the role of kingmakers.

When the third emperor of the Aygustinian dynasty, Caligula (d.41 AD) exceeded his brutality and debauchery, there was no alternative other than to get rid of him. The Praetorian guards conspired against him and stabbed him to death.

During their rampage in the Royal Palace, the soldiers found Claudius (d.54 AD), an uncle of the dead emperor hiding behind a curtain in order to save his life. When the soldiers found out that he was from the family of Augustus, they took him to the army camp and declared him the emperor. Fearful of the army, the senate confirmed his emperorship. His rule was modest and he introduced some important reforms. Claudius was poisoned by his wife, who wanted her son Nero (d.68 AD) to become the emperor.

Nero proved a disaster for the Roman Empire. When he became unpopular the guards wanted to kill him but he committed suicide before they could act. His death was followed by the successive rise and fall of four generals. Three of them met a violent end at the hands of the army and the mob while the fourth emperor died peacefully in his bed.

After the end of the rule of four emperors, the successors made attempts to restore stability and the order of the empire. However, after the death of Marcus Aurelius (d.180 AD), his son Commodus (d.192 AD) became the emperor and created chaos and anarchy as a result of his debauchery and barbarism. He was also murdered, leaving a power vacuum behind.

After him, 21 emperors followed and each one of them came into power with the support of the army. On the occasion of succession, to win the favour of the army that played the role of the kingmaker, they promised to pay the army a huge amount for its support. Some of them ruled for days, some for months and some for years.

Historians called the period when the army put the emperorship up for auction, the dark period of the Roman Empire. This chaotic situation came to an end when Diocletian (d.311 AD) became the emperor and restored the prestige of empire.

He divided the empire into four parts and appointed four emperors to administer their assigned territories. However, even this solution could not prevent the decline and fall. Armed conflict and clashes among the power-hungry generals led to civil war and consequently there was bloodshed and anarchy.

The emperor lost his prestige and honour and became an object of mockery. During this chaotic period, common people suffered heavily. The cities were looted and burnt, people were massacred and the aristocracy lost their status and privileges.

Finally, the last general to strengthen the empire was Constantine (d.337 AD), who defeated his rival and became the emperor. He shifted his capital from Rome to the newly built city of Constantinople. He converted to Christianity in 311 AD.

After him, the Roman Empire was divided between the East and West. Rome was sacked in 410 AD by the German tribes who invaded the western part of the Roman Empire. The eastern part survived as the Byzantine Empire right up to 1453 when it was conquered by the Ottoman Turks.

Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, March 15th, 2015

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