A year ago, Pakistan and India fought a short but intense war — the worst military confrontation between the two nuclear-armed neighbours in decades.

During the period of Marka-i-Haq (the battle for truth), Indian fighter jets were shot down, and Pakistan launched Operation Bunyanum Marsoos — a barrage of attacks against Indian military targets — in retaliation for missile strikes by New Delhi. The conflict ended with a US-brokered ceasefire.

During the four-day war, Pakistan showcased a wide variety of weaponry and military technology, ranging from advanced missiles to network-linked warfare systems.

Let’s take a look at some of them here.

‘Seeing without seeing’ — network-centric warfare

One of the deadliest tools in Pakistan’s arsenal was unleashed in the early hours of May 7: the use of network-centric warfare.

This doctrine involves sharing real-time data and information across multiple domains, such as between fighter jets, airborne early warning aircraft and ground-based command centres, to gain an advantage through the use of information sharing and battlefield awareness.

This was achieved by integrating both Chinese and Western hardware into a single, coherent structure, with indigenously developed software.

Intelligence and information were shared among ground assets, fighter jets and support aircraft in real time to detect incoming Indian jets on the first night of the conflict and establish a kill chain.

It also allowed for “beyond visual range” combat — targeting aircraft over a hundred kilometres away and shooting down at least six Indian fighter jets, including French-made Dassault Rafales.

Brigadier (retd) Masood Ahmed told Dawn that the use of real-time data sharing enabled Pakistan Air Force pilots to “see” Indian aircraft from beyond visual range, and they “laid an ambush” for incoming Indian Air Force jets.

The future of warfare in the present — drones

Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) can carry out a wide array of tasks — ranging from surveillance to kinetic action — at a far lower cost than conventional systems. Their use has grown globally in recent years, from Ukraine to the Middle East and was used widely by both sides last May, according to a report published by the Institute of Strategic Studies Islamabad (ISSI) last August.

“Drones played a major role in surveillance, cross-border strikes, and even targeting infrastructure,” it says, noting that Pakistan used aerial platforms for strikes and surveillance, and loitering munitions, also known as “kamikaze drones” during Operation Bunyanum Marsoos.

In response to Indian drone and missile strikes on the night of May 9, Pakistan targeted 36 different military sites inside India in the early hours of May 10, including bases such as Udhampur, Jammu, and Pathankot with drones such as YIHA III loitering munition, Asisguard Songar quadcopter, and China’s CH-4 and Wing Loong II medium-range long-endurance (MALE) platforms.

The Irregular Warfare Initiative notes that Pakistan’s drone architecture is “based on a mix of homegrown development, partnerships with Turkey and China, and adaptability”. It further notes that Islamabad’s strength in the drone arena lies in flexible procurement and the “creative usage of commercial systems”.

“Operationally, drones were employed to test radar coverage, identify gaps in low-altitude air-defence networks, and conduct stand-off targeting of logistics nodes and forward facilities,” the Initiative outlines.

“Unlike earlier crises, drones were not confined to surveillance or cross-border nuisance activity; they were integrated into signalling strategies intended to demonstrate resolve while avoiding immediate escalation to manned airpower.”

‘Rafale killer’ — J-10C fighter jet

The Chengdu J-10C is a single-engine, fourth-generation multirole combat aircraft manufactured in China. Boasting a top speed of Mach 1.8, it can be fitted with a variety of air-to-air and air-to-ground munitions. It played a key role on the first night of hostilities, shooting down six jets belonging to the Indian Air Force (IAF).

Speaking at the procurement ceremony in 2022, PAF Air Chief Marshal Zaheer Ahmed Babar said of the jet: “The J-10C has a fully integrated weapons, avionics and electronic warfare suite that makes it a potent combat system under the contemporary environment of non-contact warfare.”

‘Tip of the spear’ — PL-15 Air-to-Air Missile

The PL-15 is a Chinese air-to-air missile designed for “beyond visual range” combat, with a top speed of Mach 5 and a range of 200 to 300 kilometres. These missiles were used in the air battle on the first night of the war, launched from J-10C fighter jets. Experts believe this to be the first use of PL-15s in combat.

Ahmed said that through data sharing between PAF and ground-based assets, the missiles were able to track and strike targets across the border with India.

‘A winner that lives up to the name’ — Fatah missile system

The Fatah guided multiple launch rocket system (GMLRS) is an indigenous rocket artillery system capable of firing guided missiles and rockets of varying calibres and ranges.

These systems were used during Operation Bunyanum Marsoos to strike Indian military targets. The Fatah-II missile, which can be fired by this launcher, has a range of 400 km, according to defence outlet Jane’s.

“They were used because of their precision and, at the same time, because of their mobility. They were very quick to deploy, so that was one of the advantages,” Brig (retd) Ahmed explained, adding that the system was also integrated into the Pakistan Army’s networks as part of network-centric warfare.

‘Something you don’t want to be hit by’ — CM-400AKG missile

The CM-400AKG is a Chinese air-launched supersonic anti-ship missile, though it can also be used to attack ground targets, as seen during the war last year.

Boasting a speed of Mach 4.5-5, the missile has a range of 400km. It was used to destroy Indian S-400 air defence systems during Operation Bunyanum Marsoos. According to the South China Morning Post, this was the first-ever combat use of the weapons system.

Header image: A Pakistan Air Force J-10C. — Reuters/File