Tens of millions of pupils returned to school in France, Poland and Russia, their rucksacks loaded with exercise books, geometry sets and, for many, face masks to protect them from a resurgent coronavirus pandemic.

Hand cleansing stations, social distancing and staggered play time will become the new normal as countries across Europe seek ways to get children back into the classroom safely and their economies functioning once again, Reuters reported.

But they do so at a time when infections rates are spiralling upwards across the continent and there are widespread concerns that the return to schools and offices, the autumn flu season and excess mortality in winter could drive a second wave.

In France, Spain and elsewhere, some parents and teachers' unions have voiced concern at plans for reopening classrooms as the spread of the virus gathers renewed pace.