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At the end of a long street, deep inside Lahore’s Shahalami bazaar, lies a mausoleum — a modest domed structure fitted inside a mosque.
Some boast that the bazaar, which attracts traders from all over Punjab, is the “largest wholesale market in Asia”.
Named after the son of Emperor Aurangzeb, Shahalami was once a Hindu-dominated residential area that was burned down during the riots of Partition. This bazaar rose from its debris. The Shahalami gate, which once provided entry into Lahore’s walled city, now exists only in name.
At the modest mausoleum inside this bazaar lies the grave of Malik Ayaz, the slave who rose to the rank of governor during the reign of Mahmud Ghazni, the 10th-century sultan.
Many narratives suggest that Malik Ayaz and Mahmud Ghazni were lovers. In Persian poetry they both became an everlasting symbol of a devotee and the divine — Malik Ayaz was the perfect devotee while Mahmud Ghazni was the ultimate object of devotion.
But it is doubtful if the story of Malik Ayaz and Mahmud Ghazni being lovers is historically accurate. It possibly gained currency through the poetry about them.
And so it is with narratives about cities. Take Lahore for example.
As the Ghazni Empire emerged from the shadows of the Samanid Empire in Persia in the 10th century, it made inroads across the Hindu Kush mountains, beyond the Indus, and into Punjab.
At its peak under Mahmud Ghazni, the empire had two capitals, the fabled Ghazni (in present-day Afghanistan), where artisans from all parts of his empire were invited, and Lahore, its eastern capital.
Read more: Beyond shiny houses — Lahore’s story
The city of Lahore came of age around this time, and started to feature on the political maps of the subcontinent. This was also the time when the Lahore Fort first came into existence, along with the walled city. The shrine of Data Darbar, now believed to be Lahore’s patron saint, was also first constructed during this period.
There are some who do not find the story of Lahore’s origin under the Ghazni Empire satisfactory. After all, a few centuries later, Lahore became one of the most important cities of the Indian subcontinent under the Mughals.
In the 16th century, under Emperor Akbar, it even became the capital of the Mughal Empire for a short period. It acquired the honour of hosting the imperial mint, with the Taxali (imperial mint) Gate in Lahore still standing as testimony to this status.
Under Akbar’s great grandson, Dara Shikoh, who became the governor of Lahore, the city received another patron saint, Mian Mir.
Emperor Jahangir expressed his desire to be buried in the city. His tomb now lies in Shahdara Bagh on the outskirts of the city.
To the Sikhs, Lahore became the city of Guru Arjan. It was the capital of the magnificent Sikh Empire, an inspiring story of an underdog that emerged as the one of the most powerful powers in the region.
Under the British, Lahore became a powerful symbol of the colonial regime. It was the Raj’s educational and economic centre, attracting young people from all over the subcontinent.
Its architecture, an amalgamation of traditional and colonial styles, became a powerful expression of a new force. At the time of Partition in 1947, Lahore was a grand city, and so it remained even after.
A grand city also requires a grand history, an ancient past, perhaps even a portent at its birth that was to foretell its magnificence.
While Lahore’s recorded history dates back about a thousand years, this antiquity was just not grand enough in a subcontinent where complex cities have thrived for more than 4,000 years.
How could Lahore claim to be a grand city when across the subcontinent ancient cities much older than it were still alive and flourishing, even though nowhere as significant as Lahore? There were therefore possibly signs that were earlier missed, an ancient, magnificent past that was never recorded.
A legend subsequently grew that connected the history of the city with Valmiki’s Ramayana. According to this narrative, Valmiki lived on a mound on the banks of the Ravi when he hosted Ram’s consort Sita after she was banished from Ayodhya. It is here that she gave birth Lav and Kush, the princes of Ayodhya, who later founded the twin cities of Lahore and Kasur.
Explore: A walk through the Delhi Gate
On the political front, legends were crafted about how Lahore was the ancient capital of Punjab, and ruled by the famed Jayapala, the city’s last Hindu king before it was absorbed into the Ghazni Empire.
Following the rise of the Ghazni Empire under Subuktigin, Mahmud Ghazni’s father, Jayapala is believed to have led a confederacy of Hindu kings to subvert the rise of Muslim forces.
Leading an army of 100,000 soldiers and hundreds of elephants, augmented by forces from Delhi, Ajmer, Kalanjara and Kanauj, the Hindu king is believed to have confronted the modest forces of the Muslim ruler, only to be humiliated on the battlefield.
After losing parts of his kingdom to the Ghazni Empire, Jayapala (some narratives suggest it was his son) is believed to have led another confederacy, this time against Mahmud of Ghazni, only to be humbled yet again.
This time Jayapala also lost his capital Lahore. The defeated Hindu king later immolated himself — some say in Peshawar, others suggest in Lahore.
Needless to say there are major historical loopholes in these narratives that were first crafted by Muslim historians at least 600 years after the events are believed to have taken place. These writers were not interested in depicting authentic history as much as they were looking to glorify the achievements of the Muslim kings.
For instance, their narratives possibly exaggerated the forces of the Hindu king and understated those of the Muslim ruler. They also assumed there was a uniform Hindu identity and that Hindu kings were ready to come together — cutting across caste, sectarian and other political differences — to fight against the Muslims.
Other problems with these narratives are the assumptions they make of Lahore and Delhi’s past.
Now read: With Pakistan’s rivers dying, are its ancient cities running out of time?
In the 10th century, during the peak of the Ghazni Empire, both these cities were far from the significant political centres they had become at the time when these narratives were first written.
The contemporary significance of these cities led writers to make assumptions about their past, with Lahore becoming the capital of Jayapala, and Delhi one of the confederacies that joined forces with him.
An imaginary past about the grandiosity of these cities was created to suit their contemporary splendour. This past continues to be reiterated, for how can the significance of the contemporary city be established without a glorious past?
Correction: The article originally misstated that Dara Shikoh was Akbar's grandson. He was in fact his great grandson.
The article was originally published on Scroll and has been reproduced with permission.
Haroon Khalid has an academic background in anthropology from Lums. He has been travelling extensively around Pakistan, documenting historical and cultural heritage. He is the author of four books — Imagining Lahore, Walking with Nanak, In Search of Shiva and A White Trail.
The views expressed by this writer and commenters below do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Dawn Media Group.
Comments (48) Closed
I spent many years in Lahore in 1950s as a an undergraduate at the then King Edward Medical College but never had the good fortune to adequately learn the illustrious history of Lahore. Hopefully I have some time left to correct this gag in my learning as I am now....Yes, you can guess now very old.
People must have heard Jayapala for the first time. Appreciated.
Is 'Jayapala' the same 'Jaypal' that we used to read in the Pak Studies textbooks?
Really good know about Lahore.. want to visit this city my grandfather.
Sialkot is mentioned as Sakala, capital of the Indo-Greek king Menander, or Milinda in Sanskrit, around 150bce. His discussions with the monk Nagasena are well documented. Does Lahore have any such mention in ancient history.
excellent, story provided enough knowledge about past history of the walled city, the city is worth seeing still it is having many ancient buildings. It was also hub of education and is hub of education. we should more focus on it so that old historical sites and buildings could be saved, which expose our association with the city.
@Ambarish Kumar Lowsarwar Not Really. I already know that.
My city, I'm proud of it. Those who haven't seen Lahore ,has seen nothing in the world.
@Ambarish Kumar Lowsarwar nope.
Good attempt to narrate the history of this great city but sadly incomplete.
"Under Akbar’s grandson, Dara Shikoh"?? Dara Shikoh was the crown prince eldest son of Shahjahan. So, he will be the Grandson of Jahangir and not of Akbar. Dara was governor of Gujarat and was killed with trickery by the younger brother Aurangzeb who crowned himself as the next emperor.
Very myopic article. The author clearly has no idea about the antiquity of Lahore or its "significance" that goes back to Mauryan times and beyond. It is unfortunate that our education system necessarily glorifies a certain kind of recent history, by undermining our true history. The author who is a fine product of our glorious education system projects that thinking in this piece.
@Dr Abdul Jaleel UK I hope you do have some time sir , it’s never late . I find Lahore an extraordinary city especially at the time you mention 50s . The names that arise from that era are such intellectual especially from the pak tea house of mall road .
Very thoughtful narrative of the city's historical significance and an intuitive inquiry into the potential loopholes in the recorded history. Victorious have always written to glorify their superiority at cost of reality and the real context of the events. Only the research scholars like Haroon Khalid can show importance of critical thinking process that is required in reading the history.
Interestingly there is no mention of lahore during the invasion of King Alexander. The Katas Raj Temple is about 250 km north of Lahore which is central to thte epic Mahabharat yet there is no mention of Lahore in the Mahabharat, unless a different name was used in the early days. The early Rajputs did mention Lavkot or fort of Lav. As the author rightly mentioned Lahore's past was oft re-written by its conquerors.
do you have an email or a twitter handle? haroon khalid? @ninoqazi is mine. i am researching food stories across pakistan niloferscorner facebook page would like to pick your mind on a bunch of areas in pakistan. few seem to care or have done the requisite research. i enjoyed your piece. more please of other parts....less known :)
The history is now irrelevant.
The city is being turned into totalitarian from thriving multi-ethical. Who are we to decide whether it is good or bad. Let the time takes its course. Wait and watch. Wishing every one a happy new year.
Dear Haroon Khalid, Love to read your story on Lahore, no doubt some thousand years before it was a part of twin city Kasur-Lahore. This was told to me when studying in Punjab University New Campus 1967-71. A very dear friends from Kasur were well cultured, soft and polite.
@D Patel Thanks for correcting I thought I had early demantia Just to add Iranian wife of Crown Prince Dara is burried near mausoleum of Mian Mir
The cities established by Britishers are much developed today.
"Malik Ayaz was the perfect devotee while Mahmud Ghazni was the ultimate object of devotion."
No. Perhaps, it was the other way around. It was Mahmud who praised the curly locks in Ayaz's hair & appointed a slave (Ayaz) as the Governor of his eastern province.
Really enjoyed this and other Lahore based writing from your book ...Imagining Lahore...very interesting read i must say.
@Reader Lavapuri is the Sanskrit name. Lava/Luv/Loh to Loh-awar or Fort of Loh....Luv and Kush were sons of Rama.
Lahore may go several thousands years back or even further but it remain the most interesting city I have visited in Pakistan where old and new come togather to form a mega city in which you can find everything you are looking for. For me it was food and history.
@Dr Abdul Jaleel UK For GAG read GAP. Apology for typographical error
@IRam Thank you Iram,
@Ubuntu Lagore being totalitarisl? Really? Wow! This is the first time I am hearing this of Lahore which is an open and welcoming city to millions of people across Pakistan from all racial and ethnic backgrounds.
Ancient Lahore and ancient India has history beyond thousands of years ,the present attempt is only a part of Lahore,s past history. Thank you Haroon, thank you Dawn for posting the article.
I have read some other writings of this author, on the Dawn. I love his style of writing, very objective, and informative. Please keep writing. Loved this article!
The fact is most major cities had some form of settlement/village on their sites since antiquity. I am sure Lahore is no different. But there really is little evidence of a significant commercial, political or military presence on the site of current Lahore before the year 900 AD. I have no doubt several agrarian villages stood on the site that is today metropolitan Lahore before then - but they were not significant. In terms of age Multan, Peshawar, Sialkot and Thatta are much older
Thank you for giving some beautiful hisotory of Lahore. I have visited that town and think this is the only majestic city in Pakistan. The river, the fountains and the buildings are just great.
Good article History should be read in full and not in parts and definitely not by highlighting only certain parts or periods.. This sadly seems to be the problem of the present day history being taught..
@Amit Gaikwad Jatt tribe 'Bhangu' living in Shaikhupura district are the remains of Rama's son.
@PakistanFirst , Yes you are right, as I commented earlier, Ancient Lahore is more than beyond Lahore of Ghazni.........beyond Moryan, Chanakya and Budha.... Its realy very important for Pakistanis to know about their ancient culture and ancient history.................Thanks
@Abhi I agree that only certain parts of history is being highlighted like when Indian textbooks on military history of India just dedicates 1 small chapter to the Mughal Sultanate and Delhi Sultanate, not even talking about how Uttar Pradesh BJP government tried to downgrade Taj Mahal.
Lahore is more important than any city in Indian subcontinent. So proud of Lahore.
@Sabir Pakistani That's too much.
Indeed lahore is an ancient city with glorious history .
Delhi referred in article is a very old city. Its earlier name was Indraprastha, and it is atleast over 5000 years old, if not more.
Lahore's history is imbedded by its Hindu and Sikh past. It is because of this the city is what it is today. Sad that today, the Hindu/Sikh population is virtually non-existent.
Greetings from USA. I am always longing to go back to Lahore and walk the streets as I did while growing up. It has been years since my last visit. I need to travel back and see if things have changed.
Haroon, you're a cool dude and it would be amazing to run into you someplace while you're on one of your musings..
Ramayana is from treta yuga. Treta yuga was about one million years ago.
If it is true that the city from the time of Ramayana, it is over one million years old.
Ranjit Singh died in 1839, but his pictures used in the articles stated the date being 1860. It should have been properly captioned as the 'illustration made in 1860' to dispel any such confusion.
The imegnary past has really destroyed History that reality very few accept it.
At least some Pakistanis can understand their forefathers ware Hindus.
An interesting unbiased article.
Its been my dream to visit Lahore. Don't know if it would get fulfilled