Lahore and its indigo history

When you enter Lahore's walled city through Lohari Gate, probably the oldest 'darwaza' after the now demolished Taxali Gate, the road runs for about 400 yards and enters an opening known once as Chowk Chakla, the original red-light district of the city. Taxali was then a culturally upper class area. To the left, or north-west, it heads and joins the edge of Tehsil Bazaar. To the right, heading north-east, it meanders along the Sootar Mandi, the yarn market of old.

As we move along we notice two lanes off this 'mandi' that are called 'Nilli Gali' and 'Rangwali Gali'. These two lanes interest us. Let us start our story from the year 1633. Mughal Emperor Shah Jehan imposed a Royal 'farman' making indigo a state monopoly. In the indigo market of Lahore, just off Lohari Gate, the crier announced the emperor's decision. Little did know that decision laid the foundations of European colonialism in the subcontinent.

The royal edict also confirmed the sale of indigo throughout the empire for three years to a Hindu merchant called Manohar Das, who had a huge shop in Lohari Gate, but who also operated his business in Agra and Surat. He was to be assisted by a loan from the royal coffers which would share the profit that might accrue. Official estimates mentioned that it would be the largest money-earning scheme in the empire.

Agra and Lahore were then the two major indigo markets of the subcontinent, with other important markets being Multan, Allahabad, Surat and Delhi. But Lahore was by far the largest, and Agra, in terms of quality, held sway. The Indian subcontinent was the oldest centre of indigo dyeing in the old world. It was a primary supplier of indigo to Europe as early as the Greco-Roman era. The association of the western portion of the subcontinent with indigo is reflected in the Greek word for the dye, which was indikon. the Romans used the term indicum, which passed into Italian dialect and eventually into English as the word indigo.

The Greek sage Periplus, writing in 80-90 A.D., mentions indigo and its connection with the River Ravi. He writes: "This river (Sinthus, i.e. Indus) has 7 mouths ... and it has none of them navigable except the middle one only, on which there is a coast mart called Barbaricon (Lehar, or Lahore) articles imported into this mart are. ... On the other hand there are exported Costus, Bdellium ... and Indian Black (Indigo)."

The increasing interest of the strong Dutch and English merchant community in indigo had made the emperor act to increase his revenues. It was, 400 years ago, the biggest export sector of the subcontinent in terms of value. This 'royal farman' hit the world indigo trade hard, and the Dutch and the English merchant companies, who operated their ships along the coasts of the subcontinent, entered a solemn agreement on Nov 19, 1633, to break this monopoly.

They decided that no European would purchase indigo for one year, except at their own very low price, and that the purchase of indigo was to be a joint venture. The Dutch and the English solemnly pledged not to accept indigo as freight. The Portuguese also abided by this agreement. The indigo embargo was tightly in place.

The very first Europeans to import indigo were the Portuguese, those agents worked all over the subcontinent, especially in Lahore, Agra, Ahmedabad and Multan. They moved their product to Surat, from where it was carried to Lisbon by the Portuguese and further sold to dyers in Holland. But, with the formation of the Dutch and the English East India companies, there began a rivalry for the monopoly of its trade.

This 'European' combination compelled Emperor Shah Jahan to dissolve his partnership with Manohar Das on April 14, 1635. The Moghal empire had wilted to European pressure for the very first time. From then onwards the pressure would never cease. With indigo came cotton from Punjab. In the south they had managed to wrest the spice trade, with the Portuguese, the Dutch, the French, and finally the English playing out their roles. But indigo had a very special role to play in the Lahore of the Mughal era.

Marco Polo, writing in the 13th century, mentions: "that at colium they make an abundant quantity of very fine indigo. This is made of a certain herb which is gathered and (after the roots have been removed) is put into great vessels upon which they pour water and then leave it till the whole of the plant is decomposed".

An English trader called William Finch, writing in his diary on August 30, 1609, mentioned three varieties of indigo produced during that time, with the main and best variety being Biana, a village near Agra, and it sold 400 years ago for Rs.25 per maund.

William Finch has again described the three varieties of indigo prepared in Biana. The first year's crop was known as note (naudha, young plant), the second year's crop was jari, sprouting from the roots and was considered the best. The third year's crop was khunti and was the worst of the three. Another indigo merchant writing about the trade in India says: "I have indeed on more than one occasion observed that if an egg is placed in the morning near one of these indigo sifters, in the evening, when one of them breaks the egg, it is altogether blue inside, so penetrating is the dust of indigo".

One characteristics of indigo trade was a keen sense of competition between the Dutch and the English for its monopoly. In 1637, the Dutch were found paying more for indigo at Ahmedabad in order to frustrate the attempts of the English.

Another letter written by the English factors on May 29, 1619, to the company ran as follows "the high price of indigo is entirely due to the competition between the English and the Dutch and to their allowing the ships to be used by and native merchants for its transportation, for although it was not very useful to send Biana over land to Persia via Lahore, no one would dream of it otherwise.''

It would come as a surprise to many, that Arab, especially Egyptian, traders were transporting indigo to the Middle East for over 2,000 years before the Europeans completely took over this business. Even the mummies preserved in the pyramids of Egypt have indigo dyed cotton fabrics used in them.

It would also come as a surprise to many that the sails of the ships of Christopher Columbus had indigo dyed canvas. So the indigo of Lahore and Agra could be said to be witness to the discovery of the so-called New World. In Scotland the nearest thing to indigo is the 'woad' plant, which is even today used in traditional Scottish checks and tweeds.

The use of indigo in woven fabrics was also taking place well over 600 years ago. For example the pants worn by Indian sailors were canvas dyed in indigo. It was manufactured in the city of Dhunga near Ahmedabad. From there came the world 'dungaree'. The French, who were always master weavers, were producing special waves like serge. The city of Nimes is even today known as the textile centre of France. The Serge of Nimes, or 'serge de Nimes' went on to be called denim.

The French soldiers fighting the British in the Americas used denim. This denim was also worn by Italian sailors and working men, especially in Genoa, their main port. From Genoa the denim trousers worn were called jeans. It is amazing how a product produced mainly in western India, or Lahore, Agra, Ahmedabad and Multan, travelled all over the world and evolved into the world's most worn garment.

Once synthetic indigo was formulated by a German scientist called Bayaer in the 19th century, the demand for natural indigo dye fell. By the time the British took over the indigo business began to die down, especially after the plant was being grown in other parts of the world. The only place now where natural indigo is produced and used in Pakistan is in Sindh and Multan, where the traditional 'ajrak' is indigo-dyed.

In Lahore, it has ceased as a business. The names of streets in the walled city are now merely remembered by the older people. Street names are being changed. Chowk Chakla is now called Chowk Bukhari. But as Pakistan has the world's best medium staple cotton, indigo-dyeing is returning as more denim plants are set up. The sad thing is that the dye is now imported. A sad twist in the land and city that gave the world so much indigo dye.

Milk prices and desperate citizens

It must surely be a sign of desperation from the common man that one hears the remark that perhaps the World Bank could come to the rescue of the Karachi consumers. Bear in mind that the WB has reportedly indicated that it "may finance water and sanitation programmes".

Why not get overseas funding and help for our milk needs too? he asked. There was a sarcasm in his tone indicating the extent to which foreign assistance was required in this society. Indeed the milk prices issue is baffling and confusing. Or is it?

While zealous stories drumbeat that the crackdown against milk sellers continues, consumers find yet another occasion to realise that price hikes are really uncontrollable. And, that when sellers decide to raise prices, there is no stopping them.

I am reminded of the subject of new cars, and the black marketing that goes on, despite all the assurances. Car manufacturers reign supreme, but play innocent. And in doing so, they have managed to keep reconditioned cars out of the market, giving consumers an unfair deal.

Some citizens have brought into simultaneous focus the subject of the Sindh government's "crisis", wherein the chief minister sacked the revenue minister on allegations of corruption and land grabbing. There were counter allegations as well.

What is the relationship, if any, between the two themes - milk prices and the sacking of a minister? There is nothing philosophical or logical, not even the point that both issues have surfaced at the same time.

This citizen's view contends that perhaps if the government was better organized it would have more (and quality) time to focus its energies on the frustrations and miseries of consumers.

Perhaps, it would be able to tame traders and businessmen, who cheat the common man. Strangely and sadly, the consumer has no place to turn to for getting his grievances redressed.

'He pays through the nose,' said one disgusted housewife, whose salaried home suffers from the all-round price hike. Please note that official figures provide no real-life comfort.

What do the milk sellers want? (What did the butchers want some months ago, making the city restless, and agitating on that count?)

Milkmen want the citizens to pay Rs28 per litre, announcing that they would not sell at Rs22. This raise in prices has begun. Those (milk sellers) who have not done so have said they too will start charging Rs28 per litre from the first of March.

Taking a cynical view of the efforts to taming rising milk prices, the popular view is that eventually the quality of milk would suffer. There would be more water in milk! As simple as that! And, that would be available for less than Rs28 per litre. The higher the price, the better the milk; or, it is the other way around.

Have a look at the effort that has been reported so far. The executive district officer, Enterprise and Investment Promotion, Raeesuddin Paracha, "claimed that the city government's effort was bearing fruit, as milk had started selling at old rates in many areas."

And he was quoted as saying: "Our efforts will continue till the rates of milk are stabilized and brought to the officially fixed rate of Rs22 per litre."

It is only a matter of a couple of days after consumers know the reality of it all.

But citizens argue that if the city government had more authority, and an efficient team, there was no reason why prices of essential foodstuff could not be controlled.

A look at the details of the so-called "crackdown" on milk sellers as reported in Dawn on February 25 reflects that in the first two days the total number arrested for overcharging was 45, and those let off with a warning was 330.

And, that the action taken was only in some areas of Karachi and not everywhere. No arrests or warnings were made in places like Orangi, Korangi, New Karachi, Liaquatabad, Gulberg, and Shah Faisal Colony.

While one doubts the efficacy of long term measures to control milk prices, I cannot restrain myself from referring to the prices of other foodstuffs that have steadily risen, including that of sugar.

Instead of controlling sugar prices, the government found a solution in importing the item. Strange, remarked one Karachiite, who loves to indulge when it comes to sugar.

There are no effective platforms for the consumer, not only when it comes to prices, but quality as well; adulterated foodstuffs, spurious medicines, substandard goods (imported as unbranded items or smuggled), inefficient services from skilled and unskilled workers etc - and the list goes on and on.

It is a healthy sign that there is a growing awareness on various public interest themes, and non-governmental organizations are playing a useful role. One such theme that demands a well-organized and effective platform is that of consumer education and consumer resistance.

There should be some way and place where consumer complaints could be registered, not just for deterrent action, but also where consumers may share information about places where they had been cheated, or products that consumers need to be careful of - where they are likely to be cheated.

Keep in mind the fact that the majority are hard hit when prices rise sharply. It is also relevant to mention here that salaries don't rise equally.

Fixed income groups not just suffer economic hardships, but perhaps a kind of humiliation too. All this, the affluent, the upper class, and the elite don't ever realise.

I would like to conclude with a reference to a protest march that was held in Hyderabad against the rise in prices on February 24. It was organized by activists of the All Pakistan Clerks Association.

The spokesman for the association was quoted as saying that while low-income groups were finding it impossible to make "both ends meet", the government, on the contrary, had raised salaries as well as perks of legislators and ministers meant as a "political bribe".

Forget the price of milk, dear readers! Think about political bribe! That will cost more too!