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December 9, 2004
Lighting up the world
Before the invention of light bulbs candles were the sole source of illumination at night. Lawrence Pinto outlines the developments in candle making through the years
Candles are the oldest means of supplying light. Although a number of changes have been made in the method of candle manufacturing, there is no basic difference between candles made in the past and modern times.
References to candles date back as early as 3000 BC in Crete and Egypt. They have been mentioned in the Biblical writings.
Candles were used in the great halls, monasteries and churches of the mediaeval times apart from being used to light cottages and shops. King Alfred of England stuck torches in the walls to supply light. The simplest and smallest candles known as rush light were made by dipping rushes in the leftover kitchen fat.
For many centuries, candles were considered a sign of sophistication in Europe. Candles made from wax-chandler were expensive. They were made of wax or animal fat and were placed in silver, wooden or pewter candle-sticks.
From 16th century onwards, as the living standards improved, the use of candlesticks and candleholders also increased in the households. During this period, candles were usually sold by their weight and also in bundles of eight, 10, or 12. Those used in everyday life were made from animal fat — tallow. These candles were dark yellowish in colour and probably gave off a nasty smell.
In England, both the wax chandlers and the tallow chandlers formed their own guilds. The wax chandlers were considered better than the tallow chandlers. Their business was also more profitable because people were prepared to pay more for a wax candle.
The quality of candlelight depended on the type of material used. Beeswax, gave off a much brighter light than tallow. In addition to tallow and beeswax, another material known as spermaceti became popular for candle making. It was derived from the oil found in head cavities of sperm whales.
These candles, burned with a very bright light — so bright that a spermaceti candle flame was used as a standard light measure for photometry. These candles were slightly cheaper than beeswax candles but are no longer made because of environmental concerns.
The 19th century ushered in the development of candle-making machines, which made candles cheaper and thus became accessible to the poor also. In an attempt to protect the industry, England passed a law forbidding the making of candles at home without taking a special licence.
At this time, a chemist named Michel Eugene Chevreul made an important discovery that tallow was not one substance but composed of two fatty acids — stearic acid and oleic acid — combined with glycerine to form a neutral non-flammable material.
By removing glycerine from the tallow mixture, Chevreul invented a new substance called stearine. It was harder than tallow and burned brighter and longer. It was this substance which improved the quality of candles.
Stearine also made improvements possible in the manufacturing of wicks. It put an end to snuffing and trimming wicks once they were lit. Instead of being made of twisted strands of cotton, wicks were now plaited tightly; and the burned portion curled over and was completely consumed, rather than falling messily into the melting wax.
Addition of lime, palmatine, and paraffin further improved candles. The paraffin wax is extracted from crude oil and is equivalent to beeswax and spermaceti candles in terms of brightness and hardness and are cheaper. Even today paraffin wax is used in commercial candle making.
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