THE last quarter of the 12th century witnessed the rise of the Mongols. Comprising bands of nomads, mostly illiterate, they mainly depended for their sustenance on occasional forays into the neighbouring countries. One of the renowned persons that hailed from that nation was Tamuchin, known in history as Genghis Khan (1167). This man, surviving several internecine wars, became the khan of his tribe. After a series of nightmarish alliances and betrayals, he grew into an established general and ruthless leader. Not only did he unite different Mongol tribes under his command, but was also able to control the powerful Tartars, who lived alongside the Mongols in eastern Mongolia.
After holding sway over Mongolia, Genghis Khan began his campaigns abroad. The bordering sedentary empires were no threats to him; they were not interested in internal politics of Turkic-Mongol tribes. China at the time was divided into three separate kingdoms. Finding this situation favourable to him, Genghis Khan turned his attention to building an empire.
The attack on Cathy, present-day China, began in 1211. He systematically destroyed small towns and villages that came in his way. Eventually, in the first serious engagement with a large foreign army, the Mongol cavalry proved devastating. They completely outmanoeuvred the Chinese, virtually destroying a force of 70,000 within a few hours. Genghis Khan’s eldest son, Jochi, went up to the very gates of the capital, completing the conquest.
Now the Mongol empire was the next-door neighbour of the kingdom of the redoubtable Khwarzam Shahis, then ruled by Alla-al Din Muhammad-II, who inherited the empire founded by a Turkish mercenary, Qutubdin Muhammad. In 1216, Genghis Khan sent to Samrqand, capital of Khwarzam, emissaries with magnificent gifts of gold, ivory, jade ornaments and cloaks spun from wool of white camels with the following letter: “I send you these gifts. I know your power and the vast extent of your empire and I regard you my most cherished son. For your part you must know that I have conquered China and all the Turkish nations north of it; my country is an anthill of soldiers and a mine of silver and I have no need of other lands. Therefore, I believe that we have an equal interest in encouraging trade between our subjects.”
In 1218, a caravan of some 450 Muslim merchants, travelling from the Mongol territory, arrived at the frontiers of Khwarzam to inaugurate a trade agreement. Suspecting espionage, the Khwarzam Shahi governor in the town of Utrar killed all of them. Reacting to the incident, Genghis Khan sent three envoys demanding reparation. The Sultan, however, responded by killing one and burning the beards of the other two without realizing that such contempt was against diplomatic norms and would lead to war. Perhaps he overestimated his power.
On the western side too, out of self-aggrandisement, he antagonized Abbasid Caliph Nasiruddin-ullah. Although in the lands of Khwarzam suzerainty of the caliph was recognized as a religious leader of Islam and his name was read in khutbas in the mosques, Sultan Muhammad Khwarzam was eying the Abbasid land. He wanted to have part of Iraq included in his sultanate. This infuriated the caliph. He found himself not powerful enough to meet the challenge of this formidable foe. He, therefore, invited the Mongols to attack the sultanate of Khwarzam.
Taking advantage of political animosity, the Mongols destroyed both powers and got hold of almost the entire Central Asia and went up to the middle of Europe. The mighty Khwarzam Shah had to face defeat and escaped to a tiny island of Abeskum in the Caspian Sea, where he died of pleurisy in January 1221. He was buried in a torn shirt borrowed from one of his servants. His son, Jalaluddin Khwarzam proved elusive throughout the Mongol campaign. Genghis Khan and his son Tolui tried to capture him and followed him into Afghanistan, and then into present-day Pakistan and across the Indus River. Eventually, he was killed by a Kurd in Dayar Bayker while resting under a tree. Thereafter, the ruthless forces led by Genghis Khan and his sons annihilated one after the other any power that came in their way.
Sultan Muhammad Khwarzam ruled for 21 years and Caliph Nasirdddin-ullah for 46 years. Both of them desired annihilation of one another. And this is where one can learn a lesson from history that whosoever tries to dig a grave for any other person, has to face the same consequences. Sultan Muhammad Khwarzam died in ignominy in a remote island. The caliph, who invited the Mongols to destroy his foe, paved the way for ultimate destruction of Baghdad by Halaku, the grandson of Genghis Khan, in 1258.
Thus for the Muslims, the Mongol incursion in 13th century was a result of political tension between two contemporary powers.
