The last quarter of the 12th century witnessed the rise of nomads from the steppes of the Gobi desert known as Mongols, until then obscure in the annuls of history. Comprising mostly of illiterate people but excellent horseback riders, for sustenance the Mongols depended mainly on seasonal forays in neighbouring countries. In AD 1167, there was born amongst them a boy namely Tamuchin, known in history as Genghis Khan. This extraordinary boy, having survived several internecine wars, acquired ascendancy as the Khan of his tribe. His survival after nightmarish alliances and betrayals established him as a general of repute and a ruthless leader. Not only did he unite hitherto disparate Mongol tribes under his command, but was also able to control the powerful Tartars who lived alongside them in eastern Mongolia.
After having complete sway over Mongolia, Genghis Khan began campaigns abroad. The bordering sedentary empires were no threat to his vigour for they were not interested in the internal politics of Turkic-Mongol tribes. China, at that time, was divided into three separate kingdoms. Finding this situation most favourable, Genghis Khan first turned his attention to building an empire by annexing these lands.
The attack on Cathy, present-day China, started in the year 1211. In order to create terror in the hearts of people, he systematically laid waste small towns and villages in his path. In the first serious engagement with a large foreign army, the Mongol cavalry proved devastating. They completely outmanoeuvred the Chinese, virtually destroying a force of 70,000 within a matter of hours. Genghis Khan’s eldest son, Jochi, went up to the very gates of the capital and completed the conquest of China.
Now the Mongol empire was the next-door neighbour of the kingdom of the redoubtable Khwarzam Shahis, then ruled by Alauddin Muhammad-II, who had inherited the empire founded by the Turkish mercenary, Qutubuddin Muhammad. In 1216, Genghis sent to Samrqand, the capital of Khwarzam, emissaries with magnificent gifts of gold, ivory, jade ornaments and cloaks spun from the wool of white camels as a gesture of goodwill with a following note: “I send you these gifts. I know your power and the vast extent of your empire and I regard you my most cherished son. For your part, you must know that I have conquered China and all the Turkish nations north of it; my country is an anthill of soldiers and a mine of silver and I have no need of other lands. Therefore, I believe that we have an equal interest in encouraging trade between our subjects.”
In 1218, a caravan of some 450 Muslim merchants, travelling from Mongol territory, arrived at the frontier of Khwarzam to inaugurate the trade agreement. The Khwarzam Shahi governor in the town of Utrar, suspecting espionage, had them killed. Hearing of this incident, Genghis sent three envoys, demanding reparation. The Sultan, however, responded arrogantly by killing one and burning the beards of the other two, without realizing that such a contempt was against diplomatic norms and would lead to hostilities. He was either unaware of Mongol strength or overestimated his own power.
On the western side, too, out of self-aggrandisement, the Khwarzam Shah, on several occasions, had antagonised the Abbasid Caliph Nasiruddin-ullah. Although in the lands of Khwarzam the Caliph was recognized as a religious leader of Islam and his name was read in the khutba in mosques, Sultan Muhammad Khwarzam had an eye on Abbasid lands. He wanted a part of Iraq included into his sultanate. This unwarranted ambition on the part of Khwarzam Shah infuriated the Caliph, but found him not powerful enough to meet the challenge of this formidable foe. He invited the Mongols to attack the sultanate of Khwarzam in order to weaken his antagonist.
Taking advantage of the political animosity, the Mongols destroyed not only both the powers, but also sacked almost the entire Central Asia and went up to the middle of Europe. The mighty Khwarzam Shah was defeated and made it to the tiny island of Abeskum in the Caspian Sea, where he finally died of pleurisy in January 1221. He was buried in a torn shirt borrowed from one of his servants. His son, Jalaluddin Khwarzam, evaded capture throughout the campaign and in doing so, became a fugitive of epic qualities. Genghis and his son, Tolui, pursued him through south-eastern Persia into Afghanistan, then into present-day Pakistan and across the River Indus. After witnessing vicissitudes, he was eventually killed by a Kurd in Dayar Bayker while resting under a tree. Thereafter, the ruthless barbarian hordes led by Genghis Khan and his sons annihilated one power after another in their way. No force left was powerful enough to challenge the might of the Mongols.
Sultan Muhammad Khwarzam ruled for 21 years; Caliph Nasiruddin-ullah held the reigns of caliphate for 46 years. Both of them desired annihilation of the other, but the lesson that we learn from history is that whosoever has dug a grave for the other has had to meet the same fate. Sultan Muhammad Khwarzam died in ignominy and deprivation on a remote island. The Caliph, who invited the Mongols to destroy his indomitable and haughty foe, paved the way for the ultimate destruction of the fabulous city of Baghdad and the end of the Abbasid Caliphate by Halaku, the grandson of Genghis Khan, in the year 1258.
Thus, the Mongol incursion of the 13th century in the Muslim world was mainly the result of political dissension between two contemporary powers.
