CONTRARY to common belief, some areas of the Indian subcontinent which now constitute Pakistan might have come several times under the Muslims’ control long before Muhammad bin Qasim’s invasion of Sindh — popularly known as Babul Islam. Moreover, Muhammad bin Qasim was not the first Arab general to successfully lead an invasion to the areas falling within Pakistan.
Many historical accounts show that some ‘Pakistani’ areas might have come under the nominal control of Muslims several decades before the battle between Raja Dahir and Muhammad bin Qasim for Debal. However, the Muslims’ control remained tenuous at best with the result that the territories conquered switched hands many times.
According to a well-known primary source — Elliot and Dowson’s History of India: As told by Its Historians, some parts of the modern-day Pakistan were conquered by the Arabs in the second decade after the Hijrah. “In 22nd Hijrah, Abdulla bin Amar bin Rabi invaded Kirman and took the capital Kuwashi... He then penetrated to Sistan or Sijistan, and besieged the governor in his capital.
“After this, he advanced towards Makran... With an ardour augmented by his success, Abdulla requested leave to cross the Indus, but the caliph, true to his cautious policy, which restrained his lieutenants both on northern and western frontiers, opposed this still more distant adventure.”
This invasion has been confirmed by at least two other books, including one by Hasan bin Muhammad Shirazi, who by all accounts was a careful writer. It is fair to say that areas of “Hind” falling west of Indus might have been conquered by the Arabs many years before Muhammad bin Qasim’s attack on Debal.
The book by Elliot and Dowson also says that the Arabs’ conquest of Persia was “a mere prelude to a further extension in the East”. According to it, in 15th or 16th Hijrah — that is during the rule of Hazrat Umar— a military expedition was set out from “Uman to pillage the coasts of India”. The expedition appears to have been targeted at areas near Tana in Bombay.
The book also says: “Hakam, the brother of Usman, who had been placed in charge of Bahrain, sent an expedition against Broach, and dispatched his brother, Mughaira bin Abiul-Asi, to the bay of Debal, where he encountered and defeated his opponents, according to Futuhul Buldan... .” However, another primary source — Chach Nama — claims that Mughaira was slain during this expedition.
According to Futuhul Buldan, in 44th Hijrah, Muaviyah bin Abi Safiyan sent Muhallab bin Abi Saghra to the frontiers of Hind.
This important primary source says that Muhallab managed to reach “Banna”, which probably stands for Bannu. This book also says that during Hazrat Muaviyah’s reign the Arabs attacked Sindh from a new direction, the Khyber Pass.
Several books indicate that Makran and Kaikan had been conquered by the early Muslims. According to these accounts, Kaikan or Kaikanan was situated near the Sulaimani Range which falls right in the middle of the areas making up Pakistan.
For instance, Futuhul Buldan says that Abdullah bin Sawar Al-Abdi, who had been appointed governor of the conquered territories, was successful in sacking Kaikan. The book says that during his raids, Abdullah captured a number of high-breed horses, which he presented to the caliph himself.
The early caliphs did not treat the expeditions as one-off events. To retain control of the conquered territories, they sent one governor after the other. Under many of these governors strong armies had been placed. As Elliot and Dowson say: “... Shortly after, Abu Musa Ash’ari, who had been one of the companions of the Holy Prophet (Peace be upon him), ... was appointed governor of Irak (Basra) and Rabi bin Ziyad Harisi, one of his officers, was sent to Makran and Kirman.”
Elsewhere, the book says: “Under the succeeding reign of Ali, Taghar bin Dair was appointed in charge of the frontiers of Hind and an army was placed under his command, comprising a select body of nobles and chiefs.”
The fact that parts of the modern-day Pakistan had come under the Muslims’ rule decades prior to the invasion by Muhammad bin Qasim’s troops is recognized not only by the Muslim historians, but also by some western ones. However, as expected, the Muslims’ and western accounts are at variance with each other.
The latest edition of The Oxford English Reference Dictionary, in its section “Chronology of World Events”, says: “685 to 690 AD— Afghanistan was conquered by the Arabs who crossed the Khyber Pass and conquered the Punjab.” The dictionary most probably refers here to the Arabs’ attack during Hazrat Muaviyah’s reign from the Khyber Pass side.
The famous Oxford History of India by Vincent A. Smith has this to say on the subject: “The Muslims’ conquest of India did not begin until the last quarter of the 12th century, if the frontier provinces of Kabul, the Panjab, and Sindh be excluded from consideration.” What is noteworthy here is that this book mentions the Muslims’ conquest of Afghanistan and Punjab in the same breath.
Now, as mentioned above, the Muslims’ hold over the territory they won remained tenuous. This was due to several reasons. According to the Eliot and Dowson’s book, the internal administration of the country was left in the hands of natives as the Arabs hadn’t brought with them men capable of carrying out civil functions. “According to the regulations promulgated by Umar, soldiers were not allowed to devote themselves to agriculture and other (such) professions, and therefore, the lands of these grantees continued to be cultivated by the former possessors, now reduced to the condition of villains and serfs....
“Much also of the conquered land was liberally bestowed upon sacred edifices and institutions, as Waqf or mortmain, of which some remnant dating from the early period is to be found even to this day in Sindh.”
