November 05, 2006

The Princess Zebunissa was once the favourite child of Emperor Aurangzeb, her father, but she spent her last 20 years in an imperial prison where she wrote brilliant, poetry under the name of Makhfi (the Hidden One). Her diwan was published 45 years after she died. Posterity has accorded her “a very prominent position in Persian literature” but chroniclers of her time hardly mention her. Now, the French scholar Annie Krieger Krynicki, known for her work on Urdu women writers, has written Zebunissa’s biography, which has been skilfully translated into English from the original French by the Pakistani-born, Enjum Hamid.

The book vividly recreates the era in which Zebunissa lived as well as the life-and-death battles which engulfed her family. She was born to Prince Aurangzeb, Viceroy of the Deccan and his first wife, Dilras Begum, of Safavid descent, in 1638 in Daulatabad as their eldest child. Zebunissa had such an astonishing memory that she had learnt the Quran by heart at seven. Her father took a personal interest in her religious education. She was instructed in all the subjects normally taught only to princes, including the arts of war and administration.

A detailed historical account provides the context to the customs, rituals and attitudes of the Mughal court. The narrative is sometimes rather dry and Zebunissa’s story emerges gradually but gathers momentum as she occupies centre stage, first as the Empire’s leading lady, the Padishah Begum and finally, as a poet and prisoner.

The book devotes considerable space to the importance of astrology at the Mughal court and points out that Zebunissa’s interest in the subject influenced her unusual choice of black and later, stark white, for her clothes, as well as her pen-name Makhfi. The account of the young Zebunissa’s sojourn at the court of her grandfather, the Emperor Shah Jehan include wonderful descriptions of the ceremonial and living patterns at counrt in the Mughal capital. Shah Jehan would often spend time with his daughters and granddaughters in the zenana. “They would have lunch together, seated on cushions around leather cloths laid over precious carpets… Zebunissa must have marvelled at the jade spoons encrusted with rubies, the crystal vases with gold necks, the various aromatic curries presented in cups or bowls of green jade and translucent nephrite.”

Krynicki discusses Zebunissa’s interest in Sufism in some detail. The princess was probably introduced to Sufism at an early age by her aunt Jahanara, though Aurangzeb “being more orthodox, always kept a distance from these doctrines.” Her uncle, Dara Shikoh, the emperor’s favourite, took a personal interest in Zebunissa’s calligraphy and gave her access to Akbar’s library. Krynicki asserts, “Of all the Timurids down the centuries, he (Dara) was the one who was most keen on reading books and learning: he and his niece (Zebunissa).” Krynicki points out that Jahanara and Dara, both allies, would have also had political motives in befriending their gifted niece. Amidst the fierce sibling rivalry between Dara and Aurangzeb, the diplomatic Jahanara wanted to build bridges with Aurangzeb; while Dara wanted to create a wedge between the father and daughter. Krynicki also comments on the influence of Dara’s Sufi verses on Zebunissa’s poetry, but adds that Zebunissa would have been disturbed by his attempt to re-unite Islam and Hinduism with ideas that “deviated from the mystical beliefs she was amalgamating”.

Krynicki provides a rather sympathetic portrait of Aurangzeb, as a father, prince and monarch. She interweaves the building of Aurangabad, the conquest of Golconda and the bloody war of succession which culminated in Aurangzeb’s victory and Shah Jehan’s incarceration in Agra. Aurangzeb gave Zebunissa great prominence; the leader of fashion and great poets wrote spectacular verses of admiration. There was also an element of rivalry between her and her powerful aunt Roushanara; Aurangzeb “relied on Roushanara’s authority and Zebunissa’s wisdom”.

According to Mughal custom, imperial princesses were not allowed to marry for fear of increasing claimants to the throne. Aurangzeb thought of breaking this custom. Zebunissa appears to have been in love with the man he selected, Aqil Khan, the governor of Lahore, but Aqil Khan “demurred”. Krynicki explores the silence surrounding this episode and looks for answers in Zebunissa’s poems. The book goes on to describe the death of Shah Jehan, the reconciliation of Aurangzeb and Jahanara, the marriage of Azam, his son to Dara’s daughter, and the austerity of Aurangzeb’s lifestyle which lightened the burden of taxes on his subjects. Krynicki explains that the later, unwise, imposition of jaziya — a tax on non-Muslims — was not only due to Aurangzeb’s religious beliefs, but “a necessity, because he depended upon this revenue to meet the expenses of his various military campaigns.”

Aurangzeb’s military involvements included his ambitions on Golconda, his troubles with Sivaji and rebellions among the Pathans and Rajputs. In this political chessboard, Zebunissa played a diplomatic role as her father’s emissary, but encouraged the ambitions of Akbar, her hot-headed younger brother, whom she had brought up after their mother died giving birth to him. With the support of the Rajputs, Akbar pronounced himself Emperor in 1681. His father outwitted and routed him but found Zebunissa’s letters to Akbar, revealing her complicity. Aurangzeb was so hurt and incensed by this betrayal from his much-loved daughter, that he imprisoned her in the austere fort at Salimgarh. He forgave Akbar but not her. He never saw her again and received news of her death, 20 years later, in silence. Her imprisonment however, led to the wonderful poetry in her diwan: from being a princess she became a poet. The book goes on to discuss Zebunissa’s diwan which her brothers Akbar and Azam refused to read because “it did not accord with accepted modes”, though her poignant words were to survive her imperial family.

Krynicki states that there are several sites, including Chauburji, Lahore, where Zebunissa is said to have been buried. Therefore it remains inexplicable why the book should begin with four shoddy photographs of Chauburji, with the caption “Princess Zebunissa’s tomb”.